{"id":35479,"date":"2026-02-09T12:02:21","date_gmt":"2026-02-09T11:02:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pba.mmsh.fr\/?p=35479"},"modified":"2026-05-06T01:38:03","modified_gmt":"2026-05-05T23:38:03","slug":"conference-de-ian-milligan-how-the-web-learned-to-remember-averting-the-digital-dark-age","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/pba.mmsh.fr\/?p=35479","title":{"rendered":"[Conf\u00e9rence] Ian Milligan \u00ab\u00a0How the Web learned to Remember: Averting the Digital Dark Age, 1996-2001\u00a0\u00bb"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class='__iawmlf-post-loop-links' style='display:none;' data-iawmlf-post-links='[{&quot;id&quot;:12,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/www.ianmilligan.ca&quot;,&quot;archived_href&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;redirect_href&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;checks&quot;:[],&quot;broken&quot;:false,&quot;last_checked&quot;:null,&quot;process&quot;:&quot;done&quot;},{&quot;id&quot;:13,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/muse.jhu.edu\\\/pub\\\/1\\\/oa_monograph\\\/book\\\/123276&quot;,&quot;archived_href&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;redirect_href&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;checks&quot;:[],&quot;broken&quot;:false,&quot;last_checked&quot;:null,&quot;process&quot;:&quot;done&quot;}]'><\/div>\n<p class=\"has-text-align-right\"><a href=\"#EN\">English version here<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Le 27 avril de 14h30 \u00e0 16h30, nous aurons le plaisir d&rsquo;accueillir <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ianmilligan.ca\/\">Ian Milligan<\/a> (Professor of History &amp; Associate Vice-President &#8211; University of Waterloo ), historien, pionnier dans l&rsquo;utilisation de l&rsquo;archivage du web en SHS et dans les humanit\u00e9s num\u00e9riques en Am\u00e9rique du Nord, pour une conf\u00e9rence hybride depuis la MMSH dans le cadre du WebLab.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sa communication, en anglais, intitul\u00e9e \u00ab\u00a0How the Web Learned to Remember: Averting the Digital Dark Age, 1996\u20132001\u00a0\u00bb (ou Comment le Web a appris \u00e0 se souvenir : \u00e9viter l\u2019\u00e2ge sombre num\u00e9rique) retracera l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;archivage de l&rsquo;internet et du web et des modalit\u00e9s selon lesquelles diff\u00e9rents acteurs se sont mobilis\u00e9s afin de construire et pr\u00e9server le patrimoine num\u00e9rique \u00e0 travers le monde. La conf\u00e9rence s\u2019appuiera notamment sur l\u2019\u00e9tude des attentats du 11 septembre 2001 et examinera la mani\u00e8re dont l\u2019histoire sociale et culturelle de cet \u00e9v\u00e9nement peut \u00eatre construite \u00e0 partir de l\u2019archivage du web. Elle analysera \u00e9galement comment cet \u00e9v\u00e9nement a fortement incit\u00e9 les institutions \u00e0 pr\u00e9server les \u201cartefacts num\u00e9riques\u201d li\u00e9s aux attaques.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Le participant sera en pr\u00e9sentiel, un casque de traduction simultan\u00e9e sera propos\u00e9 et la s\u00e9ance sera en hybride : en pr\u00e9sentiel en amphith\u00e9\u00e2tre Germaine Tillon et via visioconf\u00e9rence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Milligan, Ian. <em>Averting the Digital Dark Age: How Archivists, Librarians, and Technologists Built the Web a Memory<\/em>. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/oa_monograph\/book\/123276\">https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/oa_monograph\/book\/123276<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Compte rendu de la conf\u00e9rence <\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Cette conf\u00e9rence s&rsquo;appuie sur l&rsquo;ouvrage de Ian Milligan du m\u00eame nom publi\u00e9 en 2024 aux Johns Hopkins University Press. Elle retrace comment des archivistes, biblioth\u00e9caires et technologues ont construit, en l&rsquo;espace de cinq ans, une m\u00e9moire pour un m\u00e9dium qui semblait pour beaucoup oublier par nature.<br>Ian Milligan part d&rsquo;un constat simple : dans les ann\u00e9es 1990, le Web \u00e9tait radicalement \u00e9ph\u00e9m\u00e8re. Un serveur mis hors ligne, un \u00e9tudiant dipl\u00f4m\u00e9 perdant son compte, un nom de domaine non renouvel\u00e9, et un site disparaissait pour toujours. Cette fragilit\u00e9 \u00e9tait d&rsquo;autant plus alarmante que la croissance du Web \u00e9tait exponentielle : 2 500 sites en 1994, plus d&rsquo;un million en 1997. A cette pr\u00e9occupation collective est assign\u00e9 un nom, le \u00ab Digital Dark Age \u00bb, un terme qui cristallise les inqui\u00e9tudes de plusieurs milieux \u00e0 la fois. Des voix d&rsquo;alarme s&rsquo;\u00e9levent d\u00e8s le milieu des ann\u00e9es 1990, parmi les technologues, les universitaires mais aussi les \u00e9crivains. Milligan insiste sur un point crucial : le vrai d\u00e9fi n&rsquo;\u00e9tait pas technique mais organisationnel et institutionnel. Le probl\u00e8me de fond \u00e9tait celui de l&rsquo;engagement institutionnel durable, non du mat\u00e9riel.<br>Entre 1995 et 1998, plusieurs acteurs convergent. Les chercheurs en sciences de l&rsquo;information, au premier rang desquels Margaret Hedstrom, formalisent le probl\u00e8me en termes professionnels et parlent d&rsquo;une \u00ab bombe \u00e0 retardement \u00bb. Brewster Kahle, form\u00e9 par le MIT et les <em>Thinking Machines<\/em>, construit les outils n\u00e9cessaires et fonde Internet Archive en avril 1996 \u00e0 San Francisco, avec l&rsquo;ambition de constituer une biblioth\u00e8que num\u00e9rique universelle. L&rsquo;auteur de science-fiction Bruce Sterling donne \u00e0 l&rsquo;enjeu une dimension culturelle avec son projet Dead Media, catalogue participatif des technologies mortes, posant explicitement la question de savoir si le Web rejoindra le cimeti\u00e8re des m\u00e9dias disparus.<br>La mobilisation est \u00e9galement internationale. La Su\u00e8de lance d\u00e8s 1996 le projet KULTURARW, avec l&rsquo;id\u00e9e audacieuse de laisser un robot parcourir l&rsquo;ensemble du Web su\u00e9dois plut\u00f4t que de proc\u00e9der \u00e0 une s\u00e9lection manuelle co\u00fbteuse. L&rsquo;Australie et le Canada s&rsquo;engagent dans des d\u00e9marches similaires. La France s&rsquo;inscrit \u00e9galement pleinement dans cette histoire, \u00e0 travers la tradition de d\u00e9p\u00f4t l\u00e9gal du Web port\u00e9e par la BnF et les collections de l&rsquo;INA.<br>L&rsquo;infrastructure ainsi construite est soumise \u00e0 un test historique d&rsquo;une ampleur impr\u00e9vue, le 11 septembre 2001. Quelques heures apr\u00e8s les attaques, Internet Archive et la Biblioth\u00e8que du Congr\u00e8s activent leurs m\u00e9canismes de collecte. Des milliers de sites sont captur\u00e9s en temps r\u00e9el gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 des partenariats novateurs, notamment avec WebArchivist.org. Le 24 octobre 2001, <em>la Wayback Machine<\/em> est pr\u00e9sent\u00e9e publiquement : pour la premi\u00e8re fois, n&rsquo;importe quel internaute peut remonter dans le temps pour voir \u00e0 quoi ressemblait un site \u00e0 une date donn\u00e9e. La m\u00e9moire du Web cesse d&rsquo;\u00eatre un outil de sp\u00e9cialistes pour devenir un bien public accessible \u00e0 tous. En parall\u00e8le, des projets comme le September 11 Digital Archive collectent des mat\u00e9riaux nativement num\u00e9riques (courriels, messages vocaux, photographies, t\u00e9moignages) reconnus pour la premi\u00e8re fois comme des sources primaires \u00e0 part enti\u00e8re.<br>Milligan tire plusieurs le\u00e7ons de cette histoire. L&rsquo;\u00e2ge des t\u00e9n\u00e8bres num\u00e9rique a bien \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e9vit\u00e9, mais seulement gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 un effort humain et institutionnel consid\u00e9rable. La pr\u00e9servation num\u00e9rique n&rsquo;est jamais un probl\u00e8me \u00ab r\u00e9solu \u00bb : elle requiert un investissement continu sur des d\u00e9cennies. Se souvenir reste difficile et exigeant, et les silences archivistiques, les questions de droit \u00e0 l&rsquo;oubli et de vie priv\u00e9e continuent de fa\u00e7onner ce qui est accessible aujourd&rsquo;hui.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"EN\">[Lecture] How the Web learned to Remember: Averting the Digital Dark Age, 1996-2001 by Ian Milligan<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>On April 27, from 2:30 to 4:30 ECT we will be pleased to welcome <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ianmilligan.ca\/\">Ian Milligan<\/a>, historian and a pioneer in the use of web archiving in the social sciences and humanities and in digital humanities in North America, for a hybrid lecture hosted at the MMSH as part of the WebLab.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In early 1996, the web was ephemeral. But by 2001, the internet was being preserved at scale. How did websites transform from having a brief life to becoming long-lasting? This talk traces how institutions across North America, Europe, and Australia evolved from fearing a \u201cdigital dark age\u201d to building the robust digital memory we rely on today. By the mid-1990s, cyber obsolescence, deletion, and apathy haunted libraries and threatened a bleak future with no historical record. In response, people around the world mobilized: in San Francisco, Brewster Kahle launched the scrappy nonprofit Internet Archive, filling tape drives with internet content; elsewhere, in Washington, Canberra, Ottawa, and Stockholm, librarians developed new programs to safeguard digital heritage. The talk culminates in an extended case study of how September 11 prompted institutions to preserve thousands of digital artifacts related to the attacks. It also serves as a bridge to Milligan&rsquo;s next book, which draws on these sources to write a social and cultural history of September 11.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The participant will attend in person, the conference will be held in hybrid format : in person at the MMSH and via videoconference.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Milligan, Ian. <em>Averting the Digital Dark Age: How Archivists, Librarians, and Technologists Built the Web a Memory<\/em>. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/oa_monograph\/book\/123276\">https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/oa_monograph\/book\/123276<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Report of the conference<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>This talk draws on Ian Milligan&rsquo;s 2024 book of the same title, published by Johns Hopkins University Press. It traces how archivists, librarians, and technologists built a memory for a medium that, by its very nature, forgot everything \u2014 and did so in just five years.<br>Milligan opens with a simple observation: in the 1990s, the Web was radically ephemeral. A server taken offline, a student graduating and losing their account, an unpaid domain fee, and a website would vanish forever. This fragility was all the more alarming given the Web&rsquo;s exponential growth, from 2,500 sites in 1994 to over a million by 1997. This collective concern was entitled the \u00ab\u00a0Digital Dark Age,\u00a0\u00bb a phrase that crystallized anxieties across multiple communities. Voices of alarm emerged in the mid-1990s, among technologists, academics and even authors. Milligan stresses a crucial point: the real challenge was not technical but organizational and institutional. The underlying problem was one of sustained institutional commitment, not hardware.<br>Between 1995 and 1998, several actors converged. Information scholars, led by Margaret Hedstrom, framed the problem in rigorous professional terms, describing it as a \u00ab\u00a0time bomb.\u00a0\u00bb Brewster Kahle, who had passed through MIT and Thinking Machines, built the necessary tools and founded the Internet Archive in April 1996 in San Francisco, with the ambition of creating a universal digital library. Science fiction author Bruce Sterling gave the issue a cultural dimension through his Dead Media Project, a crowdsourced catalogue of extinct technologies that explicitly asked whether the Web would join the graveyard of dead media.<br>The mobilization was also international. Sweden launched the KULTURARW project in 1996, with the bold idea of letting a crawler loose on the entire Swedish Web rather than making costly manual selections. Australia and Canada undertook similar efforts. France is fully part of this story, through the BnF&rsquo;s legal deposit tradition for the Web and the INA&rsquo;s collections.<br>The infrastructure that had been built faced an unforeseen historical test, on September 11, 2001. Within hours of the attacks, the Internet Archive and the Library of Congress activated their collection mechanisms. Thousands of sites were captured in real time through innovative partnerships, including WebArchivist.org. On October 24, 2001, the Wayback Machine was unveiled publicly: for the first time, anyone could travel back in time to see what a website looked like on a given date. The Web&rsquo;s memory ceased to be a specialist tool and became a public resource accessible to all. In parallel, projects such as the September 11 Digital Archive collected born-digital materials (emails, voicemails, photographs, personal testimonies) recognized for the first time as primary sources in their own right.<br>Milligan draws several lessons from this history. The digital dark age was averted, but only through considerable human and institutional effort. Digital preservation is never a \u00ab\u00a0solved\u00a0\u00bb problem: it demands continuous investment over decades. Remembering remains hard and demanding, and archival silences, the right to be forgotten, and privacy concerns continue to shape what is and is not accessible today. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><br><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>English version here Le 27 avril de 14h30 \u00e0 16h30, nous aurons le plaisir d&rsquo;accueillir Ian Milligan (Professor of History &amp; Associate Vice-President &#8211; University of Waterloo ), historien, pionnier dans l&rsquo;utilisation de l&rsquo;archivage du web en SHS et dans les humanit\u00e9s num\u00e9riques en Am\u00e9rique du Nord, pour une conf\u00e9rence hybride depuis la MMSH dans&hellip; <a class=\"more-link\" href=\"https:\/\/pba.mmsh.fr\/?p=35479\">Poursuivre la lecture <span class=\"screen-reader-text\">[Conf\u00e9rence] Ian Milligan \u00ab\u00a0How the Web learned to Remember: Averting the Digital Dark Age, 1996-2001\u00a0\u00bb<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":24,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-35479","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-non-classe","entry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.5 - 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